The Water Challenge in Morocco: A Growing Crisis
Water stress in Morocco has reached alarming levels[1], with per capita water approaching the globally set water poverty threshold of 500 m3 per year[2]. This happened as a result of the lack of precipitation[3] and the frequency of extreme weather events, until the country became in a situation of structural water stress.
Over the past three decades, Morocco has experienced a 20% decrease in rainfall, resulting in a significant drop in both groundwater and surface water levels. This decline has intensified pressure on the country’s already limited water resources. In 2022, Morocco’s per capita water availability was approximately 600 cubic meters per year, well below the global threshold of 1,000 cubic meters per capita per year needed to avoid water stress.
Morocco has experienced frequent flooding[4], with 20 major events recorded in the last two decades. These floods cause estimated annual losses of approximately $450 million[5], disproportionately affecting vulnerable households in high-risk areas. The situation is further exacerbated by rising sea levels, which intensify flooding in coastal regions. These regions are home to over 65% of the population and host 90% of the country’s industrial activities, amplifying the economic and social impacts of such events.
Water availability across all economic sectors in Morocco is projected to decline by 25%. According to the World Bank and Moroccan financial institutions, this reduction could lead to a 6.5% decrease in GDP. Such a significant economic contraction poses risks of macroeconomic instability and could severely threaten the country’s food security[6].
Desalination: A Promising but Complex Solution
Desalination has emerged as a viable option for addressing water scarcity, with many water-stressed countries adopting this approach. The process involves removing salts and minerals from seawater to produce potable water. The most widely used methods are reverse osmosis and thermal processes, such as pyrolysis. Successful implementations in regions like the Gulf States and Spain highlight the potential of this technology to meet population water demands effectively. However, the widespread adoption of desalination comes with challenges, including high energy consumption, environmental concerns, and significant financial investments.
Is desalination a viable and sustainable solution for addressing Morocco’s water scarcity challenges, given its high costs and potential environmental impacts on marine ecosystems?
Desalination Projects in Morocco: Privatizing Drinking Water and Increasing Financial Burdens
The Moroccan government aims to achieve a production capacity exceeding 1 billion cubic meters of desalinated water annually by 2030. These desalination plants are expected to become a primary source of water for coastal areas facing traditional water resource shortages. This initiative is intended to supply large cities, including Casablanca, Tangier, and El Jadida, ensuring reliable access to water for their growing populations. However, concerns remain regarding the privatization of drinking water and the potential financial burden it may place on households.
The Moroccan government has earmarked 12 billion Moroccan dirhams (approximately $1.2 billion) for desalination projects. Of this, 2.35 billion dirhams are allocated for irrigation, while 2.06 billion dirhams are dedicated to financing drinking water supply projects[7]. These initiatives form part of the broader “National Drinking and Irrigation Water Supply Program 2020–2027,” which has a total budget of 115 billion dirhams (around $11 billion). The program encompasses a range of water management measures beyond desalination, including enhancing irrigation efficiency and expanding water storage infrastructure.
The government has launched several projects focused on desalination plants, including the Agadir plant, which is among the largest of its kind in Africa, to address the city’s drinking water and irrigation needs[8]. Similar initiatives have been announced for other regions, such as Casablanca, Dakhla, Tiznit[9], and others, demonstrating Morocco’s growing commitment to adopting this technology.
To finance these expenses, the Moroccan government relies on loans from international financial institutions such as the World Bank, the European Investment Bank, and the African Development Bank, alongside partnerships with the private sector. For instance, the cost of the desalination plant in Agadir reached approximately $400 million—a significant amount given Morocco’s economy, which is burdened by financial pressures and high levels of external debt.
The government promotes public-private partnerships (PPPs) to finance and operate desalination plants. These partnerships typically involve both Moroccan and foreign companies[10] and are often structured as “build-operate-transfer” (BOT) contracts. Under this model, a company constructs the plant, operates it for a specified period (usually 20 to 30 years), and then transfers full ownership to the state. International financial institutions, such as the World Bank[11], also play a significant role in providing funding for these projects.
In recent years, it is estimated that Morocco has secured between $200 million and $500 million in loans from donor institutions to support sustainable water projects and infrastructure. These funds have been allocated to initiatives such as desalination and the development of water and sanitation networks.
Despite the numerous projects, they place a significant financial strain on the country, particularly with the rising costs of desalinated water production. Additionally, financing through debt exacerbates the financial burden and increases the cost of water for citizens. The cost of producing one cubic meter of desalinated water can range from $0.50 to $1, which is considerably higher than the cost of traditional water sources. This could make desalinated water unaffordable for certain social groups, particularly the poor, thereby increasing inequality in access rather than providing a solution[12]. Furthermore, the high construction and operational costs of these projects will place additional pressure on both local and national budgets, reinforcing a neoliberal trend of reducing social spending. This will likely burden citizens, especially if water prices are raised to cover operating expenses[13].
Naturally, Moroccans facing the worsening water crisis are seeking innovative solutions. However, public acceptance of desalination remains mixed. Some view it as the best option to address water scarcity, while others raise concerns about its high cost, environmental and social impacts, and the potential corruption of international companies involved in this sector. These companies have been criticized for manipulating quality and environmental standards or using influence and bribery to secure favorable deals with authorities[14]. In many cities where water management has been outsourced, residents have protested against high bills, poor service quality, frequent water supply interruptions, and contamination of drinking water with sewage, as seen with companies like Ridal in Rabat, Amandis in Tangier, and Ledec in Casablanca.
The state is taking steps to replace foreign companies managing water services with regional firms overseeing water and electricity services. Recently, the contract of Ledec, a subsidiary of the French company Veolia, which managed the water and sanitation sector in Casablanca, was terminated. However, the core issue remains that the state’s approach to establishing regional companies relies on public-private partnerships, continuing the policy of privatizing water and treating it as a commodity that generates profits for the private sector, rather than preserving it as a public resource. This trend is facing increasing popular opposition, as evidenced by ongoing complaints about high prices and poor service quality. Most notably, the protests by the people of Viqueque[15] against the proposed “regional multiservice companies” have highlighted the growing strength of public resistance to the privatization and commodification of water.
Energy Challenges and Environmental Threats in Morocco
Brine discharge from seawater desalination into seas and rivers poses a significant challenge due to its harmful impact on ecosystems. The increased concentration of salts in coastal waters adversely affects marine organisms, disrupting biodiversity and ecological balance[16]. Additionally, desalination is an energy-intensive process, which makes it costly and contributes to the release of greenhouse gases, exacerbating climate change. These environmental and energy-related challenges highlight the need for sustainable approaches in implementing desalination projects.
To reduce energy costs and minimize its carbon footprint[17], the Moroccan government is gradually transitioning to renewable energy sources to power future desalination plants. For instance, at the Agadir desalination plant, efforts are underway to meet part of its energy needs through a nearby wind power project, demonstrating a commitment to integrating clean energy and decreasing dependence on the traditional electrical grid. Additionally, plans are in place to incorporate solar energy into the operations of future plants, particularly in southern regions, which benefit from abundant solar radiation year-round.
Seawater desalination offers a valuable opportunity to decrease reliance on rainfall and secure a consistent water supply in arid regions. To make this strategy effective, it is crucial to create innovative solutions that facilitate the efficient and cost-effective use of renewable energy sources in the desalination process.
Ecological and Economic Impacts of Desalination
Despite the advantages desalination offers in addressing water scarcity, it poses significant ecological, economic, and social challenges that must be carefully considered. Even when powered by renewable energy, desalination plants remain highly energy-intensive, particularly those employing reverse osmosis technology, which relies on high pressure to treat water. These plants require substantial amounts of energy to operate continuously, raising concerns about the efficiency of such energy use compared to other environmentally sustainable initiatives, such as sustainable agricultural irrigation or the conservation of existing water resources.
Relying on renewable energy to power desalination plants may appear to be a sustainable solution, but it remains environmentally controversial[18] for several reasons, even with the integration of clean energy sources.
First, desalination plants generate significant volumes of saline wastewater containing high concentrations of salt and treatment chemicals. When discharged into the sea, this effluent increases the salinity around the outfall areas, harming marine ecosystems and threatening biodiversity, including coral reefs, fish, and other aquatic organisms[19].
Second, the operation of desalination plants can disrupt coastal communities, potentially displacing local populations and altering traditional lifestyles. Additionally, the chemical by-products from the desalination process pose risks to human health, endangering both plant workers and nearby residents[20].
The Effectiveness of Desalination Projects for Irrigation in Morocco
Morocco’s agricultural policy has prioritized the development of export-oriented agriculture, particularly water-intensive crops, without adequately balancing this approach with the country’s limited water resources. Consequently, the excessive water allocated to these crops has significantly strained national water supplies.
Although certain initiatives, such as promoting drip irrigation techniques and providing financial support to farmers—primarily large-scale producers who have overexploited groundwater resources for years—have been implemented, state policies, notably the Green Morocco Plan, have fallen short of introducing effective measures to control water-intensive agricultural practices. A notable example is the cultivation of crops ill-suited to Morocco’s arid climate, such as tropical fruits, in regions already facing acute water scarcity, including the production of watermelons in the southern areas.
Najib Aksabi[21] highlights the critical need to address the environmental and resource-related consequences of Morocco’s agricultural policies, emphasizing the intrinsic link between agricultural and water management strategies. He poses a pertinent question: “What water policy for any agricultural policy?”
Aksabi criticizes the Green Morocco Plan, stating that it “relied on incentivizing large-scale farming and subsidizing export-oriented crops. “These crops, he notes, are not only highly water-intensive but also deplete soil quality[22]. The justification for this approach has consistently been the promise of high value-added products that generate foreign currency. However, due to substantial subsidies—sometimes covering up to 100% of costs—farmers and investors favor producing export-oriented crops. This, Aksabi argues, has led to outcomes contrary to initial goals, further exacerbating the depletion of groundwater reserves[23].
Realistic and Sustainable Alternatives
Desalination is not a viable long-term solution for Morocco due to its significant social, economic, and environmental costs, coupled with the country’s limited capacity to reduce the high operational expenses of desalination plants. Instead, sustainable alternatives should focus on preserving water as a shared resource, moving away from the commodification of water. These alternatives must prioritize transparent and democratic management practices, ensuring that water governance is under direct and equitable popular control.
At present, agriculture—particularly export-oriented agriculture—and industry consume approximately 90% of Morocco’s water resources[24], leaving limited reserves for other essential uses, including drinking water. Najib Aksabi, an economist with expertise in the field, highlights the disproportionate water consumption of certain crops: “Any product, whether tomatoes, avocados, red melons, or strawberries, consumes unreasonable amounts of water. A simple calculation reveals that the water consumption of a single hectare of these crops is equivalent to the needs of an entire city. For instance, the 15,000 hectares of red melons cultivated in Zagora use almost ten times the water required by the entire city of Zagora.”[25]
An essential step toward addressing the crisis in water and agricultural resources is the implementation of a popular agrarian reform that dismantles the dominance of large capitalist corporations—both local and foreign—over water, seeds, and land. This reform should prioritize securing the rights of small-scale farmers by ensuring equitable access to water, land, and other productive resources. Such a policy must center on the interests of the communities that have lived on and cultivated these lands for generations, fostering sustainable and inclusive development.
Effective conservation of water resources demands a comprehensive and strategic approach, which includes improving irrigation techniques, reusing wastewater, and regulating extraction processes. This means using available water more efficiently and alleviating water stress. Investing in water infrastructure is essential; constructing new systems and modernizing outdated ones will help reduce pressure on available water. Moreover, it is crucial to minimize water losses resulting from supply system leaks, unsustainable agricultural practices, and the lack of proper water conservation measures in Morocco.
Storing water during wet years for use in dry periods is a crucial strategy for ensuring the long-term sustainability of water resources. Reducing the volume of water lost to the sea is another important measure, as this water could be harnessed to meet the needs of regions most vulnerable to water scarcity.
An effective solution is the interconnection of water basins, a more cost-effective alternative to desalination that can address the needs of densely populated areas, such as the Casablanca-Rabat region, which faces a persistent water deficit. This interconnection could also help alleviate irrigation water shortages in the Doukala region by providing the necessary supplies to meet agricultural demands.
Furthermore, this approach would ease the pressure on over-exploited coastal aquifers, from Rabat to Safi, as well as the Barchid aquifer, which are currently stretched to meet agricultural needs. This approach would help strike a balance between the use of water resources and their long-term preservation.
This is evident in the ongoing efforts to preserve water as a public good that serves everyone and resists commodification. These efforts reflect a clear determination to end its depletion and exploitation, preventing it from becoming a tool for wealth accumulation by a privileged minority that has historically benefited from such practices.
It is crucial to reject the current model, which perpetuates the exploitation of resources for the advantage of the powerful, and instead advocate for popular sovereignty over water and food. Achieving this vision requires adequate funding to support the development of fair and sustainable policies that ensure the equitable distribution of resources while safeguarding the rights of present and future generations to access these essential resources.
[1] الجفاف ومعضلة الإجهاد المائي بالمغرب – أطاك المغرب
[2] According to the World Bank, Morocco’s annual per capita water consumption is projected to reach 500 cubic meters by 2024.
[3] According to the National Council for Human Rights (2022 report), rainfall in Morocco has decreased by 47%. With a net deficit of 85% in 2022, the authorities have declared a water emergency.
[4] https://ar.yabiladi.com/articles/details/153923/
[5] https://al3omk.com/795833.html
[6] https://snrtnews.com/article/48829 and https://www.hespress.com/ مقال يتناول الإجهاد المائي
[7] مجتمع : محطة تحلية مياه البحر باشتوكة تشرع في تزويد أكادير الكبير بالماء الشروب
[8] محطة تحلية مياه البحر باشتوكةأيت باها، مشروع بديل لسد العجز المائي بسوس ماسة | Maroc.ma
[9] The Dakhla and Tiznit stations are scheduled to come online in 2025 and 2027, respectively, see https://tiznit24.com/?p=176655 and https://ar.le360.ma/economie/7RURHCXEDBDP7G6JCSU5GQT3EI/
[10] Moroccan companies: Office Chérifien des Phosphates, Office Nationale de l’Electricité et de l’Eau Potable (ONEE) Foreign companies: Abengoa of Spain/SUEZ of France/IDE Technologies of Israel
[11] The World Bank has allocated about 350 million dollars to support the water supply project, part of which is for desalination and strengthening water sector infrastructure. The European Investment Bank (EIB) has granted loans worth 200 million euros (about $220 million) to support water infrastructure and desalination in Morocco. The African Development Bank has provided funding of about $120 million, focusing on water projects in the southern regions of Morocco. There is additional funding from European development agencies such as the French Development Agency (AFD), which has provided loans and grants amounting to approximately $100 million. Other institutions such as the Green Climate Fund (GCF) provide concessional financing for desalination and renewable energy projects.
[12] ترجمة جديدة: عطش المجتمعات المحلية واستحواذ الصناعة الغذائية على الماء – شبكة سيادة
[13] سلعنة الماء في تونس: العطش والأرباح – شبكة سيادة
[14] Des ONG dénoncent le ‘greenwashing’ de Veolia – Observatoire des multinationales
[16] http://afedmag.com/web/ala3dadAlSabiaSections-details.aspx?id=367&issue=&type=4&cat=12
[17]تقرير المناخ والتنمية في المغرب According to the World Bank, the total investment needed to put Morocco on a low-carbon and resilient path by the 2020s will be about $78 billion in current dollars
[18]https://multinationales.org/fr/actualites/des-ong-denoncent-le-greenwashing-de-veolia Veolia will build Africa’s largest station in Casablanca, and its subsidiaries, such as Amandis operate services in several Moroccan cities
[19] https://assahraa.ma/web/2022/166915
[20] https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2016/06/23/veolia-poursuivi-par-la-justice-americaine-dans-le-scandale-de-l-empoisonnement-de-l-eau-de-flint_4956180_3244.html
[21] جيب أقصبي – ويكيبيديا
[22] www.siyada.org/akesbi دراسات-واصدارات/رهان-السيادة-الغذائية/
[23] https://anfaspress.com/news/voir/130551-2024-03-11-10-12-52
[24] (أقصبي: هذه اختيارات فلاحية وراء استنزاف الموارد المائية في المغرب The World Bank acknowledges the critical importance of irrigation in water-scarce Morocco, stating: “In water-scarce Morocco, irrigation plays a key economic and social role, boosting the productivity of the agricultural sector and raising the incomes of people in rural areas. Although irrigation is practiced on only 16 percent of the Kingdom’s agricultural land, it contributes to half of the agricultural GDP and 75 percent of agricultural exports. However, water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change, is a growing challenge for farmers.”( (تثمين المقومات الفلاحية للمغرب.
In its 2019-2020 annual report, the High Council of Accounts noted: “Morocco’s water resources are estimated at 22 billion cubic meters per year, placing the country among the twenty most water-stressed nations globally. These resources are primarily allocated to irrigation (approximately 88%), with the remainder used for drinking water supply and meeting the needs of other economic sectors (about 12%).”. خلاصة-التقرير-السنوي-2019-2020.pdf
See also: https://marayana.com/laune/2019/02/28/5945/ where it states: “According to OCP, the agriculture sector is the most consumed area in Morocco with 90 percent of water consumption, while domestic use accounts for 9 percent of this consumption rate, while the rest goes to industrial activities, i.e. 1 percent.” Thus, the OCP study calls on Morocco to allocate between 9 and 15 percent of its investments to adapt to climate change, considering that by 2050 the Kingdom’s population is expected to reach 42 million people, mainly concentrated in coastal cities, which means the need to establish seawater desalination plants.
[25] Untitled: These are the figures for exporting water through fruits and vegetables at the height of Morocco’s drought crisis